Dover Beach by Matthew Arnold is a dramatic monologue written in response to the speaker’s struggle with the changing world around him. The poem explores themes of love, faith and change.
In this article, we delve into the poem to analyse its language, structure and form. This article will be particularly useful for students and teachers of CCEA’s GCSE English Literature Identity Anthology. For more poems in the anthology, check out the entire list at the bottom of this study guide.
Dover Beach
What is 'Dover Beach' all about?
Summary of stanza 1
Dover Beach opens with a description of a calm evening in Dover, looking over the sea towards France. The speaker invites the listener, his love, to come and share the view, the smell of the air and the sound of the rocks being thrown up the beach by the waves. The comforting rhythm of the sea and the repetitive sound of the waves seems to be pleasant, but at the end of the stanza, it is revealed to be an ‘eternal note of sadness’.
Summary of stanza 2
Summary of stanza 3
In verse three, Dover Beach builds to its central message, shown through the extended metaphor of the sea. The speaker likens the sea and its retreating tides to Christianity (the ‘Sea of Faith’) which is also in retreat. The impact of scientific progress, revolution and industrial development all seem to be gaining momentum and are in the ascendancy.
The withdrawing tide of Christianity leaves the earth naked, exposed and vulnerable.
Summary of stanza 4
Arnold closes the poem by linking back into the present moment, reminding the reader of the form of the dramatic monologue. The only way in which the speaker can survive the crisis of faith he is experiencing is in an honest and faithful relationship with his love. The speaker sees the world around him as tumultuous and full of empty promises (‘which seems to lie before us like a land of dreams’). Rather than being lost in the battle of ‘ignorant armies’, the speaker instead finds solace in the truth and stability of love.
Context of 'Dover Beach'
Matthew Arnold's life, education and career
Matthew Arnold (1822-1888), a renowned Victorian poet and critic, was born in Laleham, England, in 1822, into a family of intellectuals. His father, Dr. Thomas Arnold, was a distinguished educator and headmaster of Rugby School, where Matthew and his siblings received their education. Arnold’s mother, Mary Penrose Arnold, was a deeply religious woman who provided a nurturing and secure upbringing for her children.
Context of 'Dover Beach'
Marriage, honeymoon and the inspiration for 'Dover Beach'
Arnold married Frances Lucy Wightman in June 1851. The pair spent their honeymoon in Alverstone on the Isle of Wight, and then passed through Dover on the last night of their honeymoon. 3 months later, Arnold and his new wife also visited Dover on their way to Paris. One or both of these occasions inspired Arnold to write the poem ‘Dover Beach’. Despite his happy state as a newlywed, Arnold’s poem reflects a deeper sense of crisis at the world around him, which I will explore below.
Source: The Biographical Contexts of “Dover Beach” and “Calais Sands”: Matthew Arnold in 1851
Where is Dover Beach?
Dover Beach is located in the south east coast of England, along the Strait of Dover in the town of Dover, Kent. The iconic pebble beach faces the English Channel and is known for its picturesque views, the historic Dover Castle overlooking the cliffs, and its significance in literature, particularly in Matthew Arnold’s poem ‘Dover Beach.’
Historical and social contexts for 'Dover Beach' by Matthew Arnold
The Industrial Revolution brought about one of the most significant changes in human history. This period between the late 18th century and mid-19th century saw the rise of new technologies in the manufacturing and transportation industries. The move from agrarian ways of life to the central importance of manufacturing caused huge changes in the ways in which people lived and worked.
The impact of the Industrial Revolution on literature
This led to changes in literature, too.
The Industrial Revolution influenced both the style and themes of literature in the mid-19th century. Writers began to explore the impact of industrialisation on society, and the themes of alienation and oppression became more prevalent.
The emergence of print technology and widespread literacy also expanded the readership and accessibility of literature. This made it easier for authors to communicate their ideas to a broader audience, leading to a growth in popularity of literary works. The Industrial Revolution paved the way for the growth of the publishing industry, modern printing, and the emergence of a vast array of literary genres.
Change in Victorian England
During the Industrial Revolution, the speed of change led many people to feel unsettled. Perhaps we can identify with these fears when we consider the impact of global communication via technology, or the impact of artificial intelligence on our day to day lives. Many Victorians feared machines. Jobs were created in cities, but often lost in rural places where machines took over. People’s way of live changed. Cities emerged or grew, standards of living decreased for many working class people in cities, and a new ‘middle class’ emerged. In turn, this increase the standard of living for some.
The agrarian way of life was being pushed out to the countryside to make way for big cities with factories and transport links. Education also become more widespread and literacy levels began to improve. Along with this, science was being explored and new ways of thinking were emerging.
Industrialisation and religion
On top of this, there was a growing sense of religious unrest. With the emergence of science, and monumental theories such as Darwin’s ‘Origin of the Species’, evolution and atheism were being considered more publicly. The general population were more open to new ideas, with many questioning values and religious practices which had been held dearly for centuries. A secular society emerged slowly out of the new thinking.
The French Revolution
The French Revolution (1787-1799) was the most violent and most significant revolution in Europe at the time. Many factors led to its climax in 1789. It can be hugely oversimplified as an uprising of the working class against the elite bourgeoisie.
The consequences were far reaching. The revolution had a significant impact on literature in England. During the 18th century, writers in England were already exploring new ideas and questioning the traditional social order (see above re: industrial revolution). As a result, the French Revolution provided them with a real-life example of how the status quo could be challenged and overturned.
Responses to the French Revolution in English Literature
This led to a wave of literature in England that expressed sympathy for the French Revolution. Writers such as William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Mary Wollstonecraft incorporated revolutionary themes into their works. Furthermore, the Revolution highlighted the need for greater freedom of expression. This paved the way for advancements in the publishing industry.
The French Revolution had a lasting impact on English literature, influencing future literary movements such as Romanticism. The literary response to the Revolution in England set the stage for future writers to explore themes of social upheaval and political change. Read more in this great article on the British Library website.
Line-by-line analysis of 'Dover Beach'
Stanza 1
The sea is calm tonight.
- The opening line sets the scene with a declarative statement (simple statement of fact).
The tide is full, the moon lies fair
- Alleteration creates a peaceful image by repeating the ‘f’ sound in ‘full’ and ‘fair’.
- Imagery of the moon is calming with the positive adjective ‘fair’
Upon the straits; on the French coast the light
- Enjambment connects this line with the next, and creates a sense of flow, perhaps echoing the flow of the sea.
- The reference to the French coast is no coincidence. ‘Dover Beach’ was written in 1851, approximately 50 years after the French Revolution, when its impact was still being felt.
Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand,
- Alliteration in ‘gleams and is gone’ adds rhythm and fluency to the verse.
- There is a sense of contrast between the fleeting light and the enduring cliffs with a semicolon providing a pivot point on which to balance these two ideas. In comparison to the faint and flickering light of the French coast, the cliffs of England are tall, strong and immovable.
Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay.
- Adjectives ‘glimmering and vast’ emphasise the majesty of the cliffs.
Come to the window, sweet is the night-air!
- The invitation to a silent listener is made, suggesting the context of love in the middle of the chaos of the world around them.
- The exclamation mark highlights the emotion of the moment and the beautiful scenery.
Only, from the long line of spray
- A caesura (pause) after ‘Only’ adds emphasis to the sound of the waves. It also provides a slight shift in tone as the speaker is prompted to reflect on the scenery.
Where the sea meets the moon-blanched land,
- Imagery in ‘moon-blanched land’ creates a visual picture. Again, the effect is calming and peaceful, in contrast to the sounds introduced in the next line.
Listen! you hear the grating roar
- The imperative (command) verb ‘Listen!’ adds immediacy and excitement to the observations of the speaker.
- Personification is used to enliven the auditory description of the sound of the sea throwing pebbles up and down the beach, making it like an angry person roaring, or a lion.
Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling,
- The sentence structure is complex here, with many phrases joined together, perhaps reflecting the complexity of the natural world of the speaker’s observations. The sentence seems to be never-ending, echoing the never-ending movements of the sea.
At their return, up the high strand,
- ‘Their’ refers to the pebbles which have been flung around the beach.
Begin, and cease, and then again begin,
- Repetition highlights the cyclical nature of the waves’ sound and movements.
With tremulous cadence slow, and bring
- ‘Cadence’ means the rhythm and flow of things. The speaker is referring to the movement of the sea, which is almost attacking the land, throwing the pebbles around and relentlessly eroding the land. Metaphorically, Arnold may be suggesting that the movement of thinking (like the sea) is constantly shifting, eroding and attacking established thinking (in the metaphor, this thinking would be the land).
The eternal note of sadness in.
- The movement of the sea causes the speaker’s awe at the beauty of nature to change to a more reflective and concerned tone. The eroding of established thinking brings ‘sadness’.
Stanza 2
Sophocles long ago
- The speaker alludes to (refers to another literary text) Sophocles, an ancient Greek philosopher and writer, who wrote in ‘Antigone’ of the sound of the waves as if they are the sounds of ‘human misery’.
- This short line amid longer ones also mirrors the sea. In mirroring the movements of the waves in the length of the lines, Arnold maximises the power of free verse.
Heard it on the Ægean, and it brought
- The Ægean Sea is a stretch of the Mediterranean Sea between Greece and Turkey.
Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow
- ‘Turbid’ means murky, cloudy or unclear. In this line, the sea bring intangible thoughts of darkness and misery.
Of human misery; we
- A semicolon creates a pause before introducing the first person plural pronoun ‘we’. I think this pronoun is a general ‘we’ rather than referring specifically to the speaker and listener of this poem.
Find also in the sound a thought,
- Parallelism (‘Sophocles…heard…we…Find’) connects the speaker and the historical figure through a shared experience.
Hearing it by this distant northern sea.
- Imagery (‘distant northern sea’) creates a sense of vastness and separation, leaving this stanza with a haunting sense of anxiety.
Stanza 3
The Sea of Faith
- Stanza 3 introduces the central metaphor of the sea as representing religious belief.
Was once, too, at the full, and round earth’s shore
- Enjambment connects this line to the next and creates a sense of historical depth; the speaker sees their place in history with a sense of burden. The future seems daunting, unfixed and too radically different to the past.
Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled.
- The simile (‘Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furled’) compares faith to a comforting and secure garment. A girdle can be a very supportive belt, but it can also be uncomfortable and restrictive. In other words, the earth used to be wrapped in religious faith (‘the Sea of Faith’) which was comforting (but potentially restrictive). Now that sea is retreating, and while the lack of restriction can be a good thing, it is also disconcerting, and leaves a gap.
But now I only hear
- A contrast is established between the past and present state of faith through the connective ‘but’.
Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,
- The metaphor (‘melancholy, long, withdrawing roar’) compares the sound of the waves to the fading presence of faith.
- The ‘roar’ is repeated from the first stanza, reminding us of the power of the sea, ie the power of the changing world around the speaker.
Retreating, to the breath
- Personification here in the word ‘breath’ attributes human-like action to the night-wind.
Of the night-wind, down the vast edges drear
- Consonance and alliteration in ‘down the vast edges drear’ emphasise the bleakness and emptiness of the speaker’s thoughts.
And naked shingles of the world.
- Imagery (‘naked shingles’) creates a stark picture of the world without faith, leaving it exposed to the elements.
Stanza 4
Ah, love, let us be true
- A shift in tone happens at the start of this final stanza. The soft pet name ‘love’ takes the focus back from the very broad concepts of the previous stanza to the more intimate setting of the speaker looking out a window at Dover Beach with his love. This ‘love’ is perhaps inspired by Arnold and his wife’s honeymoon when they passed through Dover.
- The speaker directly addresses the listener with an imperative (‘let us be true’).
To one another! for the world, which seems
- Enjambment connects this line and the next, emphasising the importance of love as a grounding and firm foundation, in contrast to the shifting and unreliable nature of the world around them.
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
- The simile (‘like a land of dreams’) compares the world to something beautiful and alluring, yet potentially unreal (note the use of ‘seems’ suggesting doubt).
- Arnold plays on the double meaning of ‘to lie before us’, which could suggest that it is spread out in front of them, or that it is being untruthful.
So various, so beautiful, so new,
- Anaphora (repeating the same word at the start of a series of phrases, in this case using the word ‘so’) emphasises the positive qualities of the world, using a triplet structure.
Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
- A series of negatives (‘neither joy, nor love, nor light’) highlights the harsh reality of the world, contrasting with the previous description of its positive characteristics.
- The darkness of this final stanza contrast with the light of the opening stanza, reflecting the change in the speaker’s thinking. Now, the negative darkness has taken over, and the glimmering light of the moon and the French coast from the opening lines have disappeared.
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
- The series of negatives continues, emphasising the lack of comfort and stability in the world.
And we are here as on a darkling plain
- The simile (‘as on a darkling plain’) compares the world to a vast and dangerous place.
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
- Imagery (‘confused alarms’) creates a feeling of chaos and uncertainty. These noise of alarms and the clashing of armies, along with the roar of the sea, creates a cacophony of confusing sounds and reflects the sense of fear of the speaker towards the changing world around them,
Where ignorant armies clash by night.
- Metaphor (‘ignorant armies’) compares the conflicts in the world to blind and destructive forces, leaving the reader with a very unsettling final image.
Analysis of form and structure in 'Dover Beach'
Verse structure
Dover Beach uses a free form of poetry which was unusual for its day. Most poetry reflected the conventional forms, such as sonnets, ballads, odes, epic poems, heroic verse, etc. Arnold’s Dover Beach seems to stray from convention, which is perhaps a reflection of its content. The poem questions the traditionally held values and their power to withstand pressure from new ideas and thinking.
Dover Beach varies its verse length. The verses contain 14, 6, 8 and 9 lines respectively. As with the form, the structure of the poem is free and unstructured, like the world the speaker looks out over.
Rhyme
Like the rhythm, the rhyme scheme of Dover Beach is unpredictable and does not follow any traditional patterns. There are moments of echoes in the rhyme, such as in the opening three lines. Often, the rhyme is buried by enjambment (shown with the arrows in the image below). An example of this is the rhyme of ‘tonight’ and ‘light’ in lines one and three, which is buried by the enjambment and lack of pause after ‘light’. As a result, the reader reads on into line four, pausing after ‘gone’ with the semi-colon.
The overall effect of the irregular rhyme is similar to the effect of the irregular rhythm: unsettling and unpredictable. The echoes of rhyme create a sound similar to the movement of the tides, or indeed, the ‘ebb and flow of human misery’ in stanza two.
Stanza four contains three separate examples of rhyming couplets (seems/dreams, pain/plain and flight/night). This increase in the intensity of the rhyme at the end of the poem, perhaps suggests the overwhelming uncertainty of the world which surrounds the speaker
Rhythm
Dover Beach opens with an iambic rhythm in the first two and a half lines.
Upon/ the straits;/
(The backslash / shows each pair of syllables; the syllables in bold and underlined are the stressed syllables in each pair).
The regularity of these opening lines mimics the regularity of the tides and the phases of the moon which the speaker is reflecting upon. This open rhythm establishes the certainty of nature and traditional values. Indeed, this iambic rhythm would have sounded familiar and comforting to Victorian readers. Those values are later described as ‘The Sea of Faith’, capitalised to emphasise their connection to religion and Christian values held dearly by previous generations.
However, the iambic rhythm does not last. As the poem proceeds, iambic gives way to pyrrhic, spondaic, anapestic, trochaic and then dactylic. These different rhythms battle it out even within each line, as shown below.
Arnold’s message, through the battling of rhythms, is that modern life, modern thinking and the influence of revolution and science, are unsettling, uncomfortable and unpredictable.
Imagery and language choices
Imagery
Dover Beach employs sensory language, particularly visual and auditory, to give an immediate and physical impression of the setting. In the opening lines, Arnold uses the visual imagery of the “moon-blanched land” and the “tranquil bay” to create a sense of stillness and serenity that contrasts with the sound of the waves. In addition, uses auditory imagery of the “grating roar” of the pebbles to convey the harshness of the waves. These contrasting images create a vivid and complex representation of the setting that establishes a central theme of the poem – the conflict between the natural world and the human world.
A powerful image in ‘Dover Beach’ is that of the light on the French coast which ‘gleams and is gone’. It is hard to ignore the specific reference to France, whose revolution, while over, had reverberated across Europe and impacted the thinking of many, including Arnold. The visibility of light on the French coast suggests the hope of change, but that very light is momentary and then gone. Some have suggested that Arnold felt the revolutionaries gave up too quickly and did not go far enough to make real and lasting positive change. This is a huge oversimplification. You can read more of Arnold’s thoughts on the progress and the revolution in France here.
Language choices
Arnold’s choice of vocabulary is also noteworthy. The use of words like “Sea of Faith” and “darkling” imbues the poem with a sense of melancholy, ambiguity and doubt. Such words create a semantic frame that lets the reader see the bigger picture or the underlying feelings of the poem. Arnold’s effective use of symbolism in the poem can also be seen in this regard, particularly with the allegorical reference to “Sophocles long ago.”
In the final stanza, the vocabulary moves from the philosophical and idealistic into the physical and confrontational. Words such as ‘darkling plain’, ‘confused alarms’, ‘struggle and fight’ and ‘ignorant armies clash by night’ all illustrate the conflict and unrest in the world around him. Whether this is a response to physical conflict, such as the violence of the French Revolution, or the moral and educational conflict of the struggle between religion and science, Arnold sees the world as in a state of change and unrest.
The choice of ‘lie‘ is worth a second look.
…for the world, which seemsTo lie before us like a land of dreams,So various, so beautiful, so new,Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light…
Themes in 'Dover Beach'
Hope v doubt
Arnold hints at the theme of hope vs doubt in the opening of the poem. The lines, ‘on the French coast the light gleams and is gone’ suggests more than the literal light on the horizon. Rather, Arnold suggests that the hope of change in France is only a momentary hope which is extinguished. He contrasts this bright but brief light with the ‘melancholy, long, withdrawing roar’ of the influence of Christian faith in the world around him.
Love
Love is presented as a balm for hurt, confused and anxious times. The setting of the poem, a honeymoon poem, brings the theme of love to the fore. And indeed, the speaker suggested that truth and love are the only fixed and hopeful elements left in the world as he sees it. In this regard, the poem pairs well with Sonnet 29 by William Shakespeare, in which the only solution to the woes of life is comfort in love.
Science v religion
The conflict between science and religion is a central theme. The poem portrays the speaker’s despair as he reflects on how the world has lost faith in religion and has turned to science instead. The speaker questions the value of science when it fails to provide the same sense of purpose and meaning that religion does.
The poem’s theme of science vs religion is highlighted in the lines, “And we are here as on a darkling plain / Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight, / Where ignorant armies clash by night.” These lines depict the confusion caused by the conflict between the two ideologies, the changing nature of society and the struggle between traditional values and the advancement of science.
Comprehension Questions
- Describe the details in the first stanza that create a peaceful image. How does this change in the second stanza?
- How does the sound of the waves contribute to the mood of the poem? What emotions does it evoke?
- Who is Sophocles, and what connection does the speaker draw between him and the sound of the sea?
- What two metaphors are used to describe the “Sea of Faith”? How does their connotation differ?
- What is the speaker’s tone in the third stanza? How does it reflect the poem’s central theme?
- Compare the speaker’s description of the world in the first and last stanzas. What is the main difference in perspective?
- Identify and explain the effect of an example of figurative language in the last stanza (lines 33-37).
- How does the repetition of “Begin, and cease, and then again begin” contribute to the poem’s meaning?
- What does the speaker urge their companion to do, and how does it connect to the broader theme of the poem?
- Which poem from your Identity anthology would you select to pair with ‘Dover Beach’ for a compare and contrast essay? Plan out key ideas for an essay, explaining how the two poems are similar and how they are different.
Quiz
Quiz on ‘Dover Beach’ by Matthew Arnold
Test your knowledge of the poem 'Dover Beach' by Matthew Arnold.
Both poems explore the difficulties of the world around them – in Sonnet 29, a crisis of self doubt and in Dover Beach, a crisis of faith. In both poems, the answer to crisis is to look to love and cling to true relationships. These poems have much in common in their focus on love, but there is also much for students to contrast in the form and structure. Sonnet 29 is a very traditional form while Dover Beach explores free verse.
Both poems experiment with irregular rhythm and verse structure while commenting on the nature of the world and humanity. Prayer Before Birth has a particularly bleak outlook on life, which can be compared to Arnold’s crisis of faith in modern life. Both poems use the form of a dramatic monologue. In Prayer Before Birth, the speaker is an unborn child, while in Dover Beach, the speaker is a lover, perhaps on his honeymoon.
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